|
|
Mountain Meadows Massacre
The Mountain Meadows massacre involved a mass slaughter of the Fancher-Baker emigrant wagon train at Mountain Meadows in Utah Territory by Mormon militia in September 1857. It began as an attack, quickly turned into a siege and eventually culminated on September 11, 1857, in the execution of the unarmed emigrants after their surrender. Local Paiute tribesmen recruited by the militia also participated in the attack and massacre.The Arkansas emigrants were traveling to California shortly before the Utah War started. Mormons throughout the Utah Territory had been mustered to fight the United States Army,
which they believed was intended to destroy them as a people. During
this period of tension, rumors among the Mormons also linked the
Fancher-Baker train with enemies who had participated in previous
persecutions of Mormons or more recent malicious acts.[citation needed] The
emigrants stopped to rest and regroup their approximately 800 head of
cattle at Mountain Meadows, a valley within the Iron County Military
District of the Nauvoo Legion (the popular designation for the militia of the Utah Territory).[1] Initially intending to orchestrate an Indian massacre,[2] two men with leadership roles in local military, church and government organizations,[3] Isaac C. Haight and John D. Lee, conspired for Lee to lead militiamen disguised as Native Americans along with a contingent of Paiute
tribesmen in an attack. The emigrants fought back and a siege ensued.
Intending to leave no witnesses of Mormon complicity in the siege and
avoid reprisals complicating the Utah War,
militiamen induced the emigrants to surrender and give up their
weapons. After escorting the emigrants out of their fortification, the
militiamen and their tribesmen auxiliaries executed approximately 120
men, women and children.[4] Seventeen younger children were spared. Investigations, interrupted by the U.S. Civil War, resulted in nine indictments in 1874. Only John D. Lee was ever tried, and after two trials, he was convicted. On March 23, 1877 a firing squad executed Lee at the massacre site. BackgroundFor a decade prior to the Mountain Meadows massacre, the Utah Territory existed as a theocracy or theodemocracy led by Brigham Young. As part of Young's vision of a pre-millennial "Kingdom of God", Young established colonies along the California and Old Spanish Trails,
where Mormon officials governed by "lay[ing] the ax at the root of the
tree of sin and iniquity", while preserving individual rights.[5] Two of the southern-most establishments were Parowan and Cedar City, led respectively by Stake Presidents William H. Dame and Isaac C. Haight. Haight and Dame were, in addition, the senior regional military leaders of the Mormon militia. During the period just before the massacre, known as the Mormon Reformation, Mormon teachings were dramatic and strident. The religion had undergone a period of intense persecution
in the American midwest, and faithful Mormons made solemn oaths to pray
for vengeance upon those who killed the "prophets" including founder Joseph Smith, Jr. and most recently apostle Parley P. Pratt, who was murdered in April 1857 in Arkansas. Meanwhile, early 1857, several groups of emigrants from the northwestern Arkansas region started their trek to California, joining up on the way and known as the Fancher-Baker party. The groups were mostly from Marion, Crawford, Carroll, and Johnson counties in Arkansas, assembled into a wagon train at Beller's Stand, south of Harrison, Arkansas for the purpose of emigrating to southern California.
This group was initially referred to as both the Baker train and the
Perkins train, but after being joined by other Arkansas trains and
making its way west, was soon called the Fancher train
(or party) after "Colonel" Alexander Fancher who, having already made
the journey to California twice before, had become its main leader.[6] By contemporary standards the Fancher party was prosperous, carefully organized and well-equipped for the journey.[7] They were subsequently joined along the way by families and individuals from other states, including Missouri.[8] This group was relatively wealthy, and planned to restock its supplies in Salt Lake City,
as most wagon trains did at the time. The party reached Salt Lake City
with about 120 members. In Salt Lake, there was an unsubstantiated
rumor that Parley P. Pratt's widow recognized one of the party as being
present at her husband's murder.[
Escalating tensionsThe Mountain Meadows massacre was caused in part by events relating to the Utah War, an 1858 invasion of the Utah Territory by the United States Army which ended up being peaceful. In the summer of 1857, however, Mormons expected an all-out invasion of apocalyptic significance. From July to September 1857, Mormon leaders prepared Mormons for a seven-year siege predicted by Brigham Young.
Mormons were to stockpile grain, and were prevented from selling grain
to emigrants for use as cattle feed. As far-off Mormon colonies
retreated, Parowan and Cedar City
became isolated and vulnerable outposts. Brigham Young sought to enlist
the help of Indian tribes in fighting the "Americans", encouraging them
to steal cattle from emigrant trains, and to join Mormons in fighting
the approaching army.In August 1857, Mormon apostle George A. Smith,
of Parowan, set out on a tour of southern Utah, instructing Mormons to
stockpile grain. He met with many of the eventual participants in the
massacre, including W. H. Dame, Isaac Haight, and John D. Lee. He noted
that the militia was organized and ready to fight, and that some of
them were anxious to "fight and take vengeance for the cruelties that
had been inflicted upon us in the States"[citation needed]. On his return trip to Salt Lake City, Smith camped near the Fancher party. Jacob Hamblin
suggested the Fanchers stop and rest their cattle at Mountain Meadows.
Some of Smith's party started rumors that the Fanchers had poisoned a
well and a dead ox, in order to kill Indians, rumors that preceded the
Fanchers to Cedar City. Most witnesses said that the Fanchers were in
general a peaceful party that behaved well along the trail.Among
Smith's party were a number of Paiute Indian chiefs from the Mountain
Meadows area. When Smith returned to Salt Lake, Brigham Young met with
these leaders on September 1, 1857
and encouraged them to fight against the "Americans". The Indian chiefs
were reportedly reluctant. Some scholars theorize, however, that the
leaders returned to Mountain Meadows and participated in the massacre.
However, it is uncertain whether they would have had time to do so.The
wagon train may have been joined by a group of eleven miners and
plainsmen who called themselves "Missouri Wildcats," some of whom
reportedly taunted, vandalized and "caused trouble" for Mormons and
Native Americans along the route (by some accounts claiming they had
the gun that "shot the guts out of Old Joe Smith"[10]) and stories of this spread through Mormon communities.[11]
However, it is uncertain whether the Missouri Wildcat group stayed with
the slow-moving Fancher party after leaving Salt Lake City,[12] or even existed.[13] Either way, popular Mormon leader Parley P. Pratt had been murdered in Arkansas a few months earlier (by the ex-husband of one of Pratt's plural wives[14]) and news of his death had only recently begun to arrive in the area.[15]
These rumors, martial law, threats of war and limited supplies all
likely influenced individual Mormons who didn't sell food to the
Fancher party.
Conspiracy and siege As the Fancher party approached Mountain Meadows, several meetings were held in Cedar City and nearby Parowan by local LDS ("Latter-Day Saints") leaders pondering how to implement Young's declaration of martial law.[16]
They decided to "eliminate" the Fancher wagon train. Nearly 12 hours
after the attack was initiated, an express rider was sent to Salt Lake
City to inform Brigham Young.[17] Meanwhile, organization among the local Mormon leadership reportedly broke down.[18] The
hungry, somewhat dispirited Fancher party found water and fresh grazing
for its livestock after reaching grassy, mountain-ringed Mountain
Meadows, a widely known stopover on the old Spanish Trail, in early
September. They anticipated several days of rest and recuperation
there. On September 7 the party was attacked by a group of Native American Paiutes and Mormon militiamen dressed as Native Americans.[19]
The Fancher party defended itself by encircling and lowering their
wagons, wheels chained together, along with digging shallow trenches
and throwing dirt both below and into the wagons, which made a strong
barrier. Seven emigrants were killed during the opening attack and were
buried somewhere within the wagon encirclement. Sixteen more were
wounded. The attack continued for five days, during which the besieged
families had little or no access to fresh water or game food and their
ammunition was depleted.[20]
Killings and aftermath of the massacre Three (of nine) Utah Territorial militiamen of Tenth Regiment "Iron Brigade"
indicted in 1874 for murder or conspiracy
(Note: William H. Dame • Isaac C. Haight • William C. Stewart
Ellott Willden • Samuel Jukes • George Adair, Jun. not shown) |  Maj.
John H. Higbee, said to have shouted the command to begin the killings.
According to his own story, he reluctantly participated after the
massacre, only to bury the dead from what he thought was an "Indian
attack".
|  Maj. John D. Lee, constable, judge, and Indian Agent. Having conspired in advance with his immediate commander, Isaac C. Haight,
Lee led the initial assault, and falsely offered emigrants safe passage
prior their mile-long march down field of massacre. He was the only
convicted participant. |  Philip Klingensmith, a Bishop in the church and a private in the militia. Participated in the killings, and later turned state's evidence against fellows, after leaving the church.
|
|
On
Friday, September 11 two Mormon militiamen approached the Fancher party
wagons with a white flag and were soon followed by Indian agent and
militia officer John D. Lee.
Lee told the battle-weary emigrants he had negotiated a truce with the
Paiutes, whereby they could be escorted safely to Cedar City under
Mormon protection in exchange for leaving all their livestock and
supplies to the Native Americans.[21]
Accepting this, the emigrants were led out of their fortification. When
a signal was given, the Mormon militiamen turned and executed the male
member of the Fancher party standing by his side. Reportedly, the
militia let a group of Paiute Indians execute the women and children.
The militia saved 17 small children that were deemed too young to
relate the story. The bodies were gathered and looted for valuables,
and were left in shallow graves or on the open ground. Members of the
Mormon militia were sworn to secrecy. A plan was set to blame the
massacre on the Indians.Investigations and prosecutions While
taking into account evidence Brigham Young did not order the murders
and lack of direct evidence Young condoned of it, historians still
question the roles of local Cedar City Mormon church officials in
ordering the massacre and Young's concealing of evidence in its
aftermath.[22] Young's use of inflammatory and violent language[23]
in response to the Federal expedition added to the tense atmosphere at
the time of the attack. After the massacre, Young stated in public
forums that God had taken vengeance on the Fancher party.[24]
It is unclear whether Young held this view because he believed this
specific group posed an actual threat to colonists or were directly
responsible for past crimes against Mormons. According to historian
MacKinnon, "After the war, Buchanan implied that face-to-face
communications with Brigham Young might have averted the conflict, and
Young argued that a north-south telegraph line in Utah could have
prevented the Mountain Meadows Massacre."[25]
MacKinnon suggest that hostilities could have been avoided if Young had
traveled east to Washington D.C. to resolve governmental problems
instead of a five week trip north on the eve of the Utah War for church
reasons.[26] Media coverage and public relationsAlthough the massacre was covered to some extent in the media during the 1850s,[citation needed],
the first period of intense nation-wide publicity about the massacre
began around 1872, after investigators obtained the confession of
Philip Klingensmith, a Mormon bishop at the time of the massacre and a private in the Utah militia. In 1872, Mark Twain commented on the massacre through the lens of contemporary American public opinion in an appendix to his semi-autobiographical travel book Roughing It. In 1873, the massacre was a prominent feature of a history by T.B.H. Stenhouse, The Rocky Mountain Saints.[27] National newspapers covered the Lee trials closely from 1874 to 1876, and his execution in 1877 was widely covered. The massacre has been treated extensively by several historical works, beginning with Lee's own Confession in 1877, expressing his opinion that George A. Smith was sent to southern Utah by Brigham Young to direct the massacre.[28]
In 1910, the massacre was the subject of a short book by Josiah F.
Gibbs, who also attributed responsibility for the massacre to Young and
Smith.[29] The first detailed and comprehensive work using modern historical methods was Mountain Meadows Massacre in 1950 by Juanita Brooks, a Mormon
scholar who lived near the area in southern Utah. Brooks found no
evidence of direct involvement by Brigham Young, but charged him with
obstructing the investigation and for provoking the attack through his
rhetoric. Initially, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(LDS Church) denied any involvement by Mormons, and was relatively
silent on the issue. In 1872, however, it excommunicated some of the
participants for their role in the massacre. Since then, the LDS Church
has consistently condemned the massacre, though acknowledging
involvement by local Mormon leaders. In September 2007, the LDS Church published an article in its official publications marking 150 years since the tragedy occurred.[30]. RemembrancesStarting
in 1988 descendants of both the Fancher party victims and the Mormon
participants collaborated to design and dedicate a monument to replace
the neglected and crumbling marker on the site. There are now three
monuments to the massacre. Two of these are at Mountain Meadows.
Mountain Meadows Association built a monument in 1990 which is
maintained by the Utah State Division of Parks and Recreation. In 1999
the Mormon Church built and agreed to maintain a second monument. [3] [4] [5].
A monument in Arkansas is a replica of Carleton's original marker
maintained by the Mountain Meadows Massacre Monument Foundation. Article From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Meadows_Massacre |
|